Freedom as the End:The Confucian Concept of Freedom from the Perspective of Comparative Civilization

From a comparative civilizational perspective,it is commonly asserted that the fundamental difference between Chinese and Western civilizations lies in the pursuit or non-pursuit of freedom.Due to the absence of explicit naming,theoretical interpretation,and institutional practice of freedom in Chinese civilization,it is often deemed as a non-free form of civilization.This is a misconception.The emergence and sustenance of all civilizational forms are predicated on freedom.Without freedom,civilization cannot happen.As the spiritual backbone of ancient Chinese civilization,Confucianism has contributed to the thoughts of freedom from realms of xin xing(mind and nature,“心性”),limitation of power,economy,and boundaries of rights between self and others,thereby preserving the necessary intellectual resources of freedom for civilization in ancient China.Examining within the framework of the transformation from ancient to modern times,Confucian conception of freedom represents a classical form of freedom,characterized by habitual practices and not yet reaching the level of conscious awareness,clear interpretation,and solid institutional foundations.It requires a structural transformation to release individuals,govern according to the constitution,and strengthen society through modern principles of freedom,thereby firmly establishing the foundation of freedom in the construction of modern Chinese civilization.